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History of psychology
Psychology
It is an academic and applied field involving the study of behavior,
mind and thought and the neurological bases of behavior. Psychology
also refers to the application of such knowledge to various spheres
of human activity, including problems of individuals' daily lives
and the treatment of mental illness. It is largely concerned with
humans, although the behavior and processes of animals can also
be part of psychology research, either as a subject in its own right
, or somewhat more controversially, as a way of gaining an insight
into human psychology by means of comparison (including comparative
psychology Psychology is commonly defined as the science of behaviour
and mental processes. Although its name derives from Greek "psyche",
psychology does not scientifically study the soul, since no evidence
exists to show such a thing exists.
Psychology is conducted both scientifically and non-scientifically,
but is to a large extent wholly rigorous. Mainstream psychology
is based largely on positivism, using quantitative studies and the
scientific method to test and disprove hypotheses, often in an experimental
context. Psychology tends to be eclectic, drawing on scientific
knowledge from other fields to help explain and understand behaviour.
However, not allmethods strictly follow the empirical positivism
philosophy. techniques and is descriptive in nature, enabling the
gathering of rich clinical information unattainable by classical
experimentation. Some psychologists, particularly adherents to humanistic
psychology, may go as far as completely rejecting a scientific approach,
viewing psychology more as an art rather than e. However,psychology
has a bias towards the scientific method, which is reflected in
the dominance of cognitivism as the guiding theoretical framework
used by most psychologists to understand thought and behaviour.Psychology
does not necessarily refer to the brain or nervous system and can
be framed purely in terms of phenomenological or information processing
theories of mind. Increasingly, though, an understanding of brain
function is being included in psychological theory and practice,
particularly in areas such as artificial intelligence, neuropsychology,
and cognitive neuroscience. Psychology is distinct from, though
related to, psychiatry, the branch of medicine which treats mental
illness.Psychology differs from sociology, anthropology, economics,
and political science, in part, by studying the behaviour of individualsor
in groups rather than the behaviour of the groups or aggregates
themselves. Although psychological questions were asked in antiquity
see Aristotle's De Memoria et Reminiscentia or "On Memory and
Recollection, psychology emerged as a separate discipline only recently.
The first person to call himself a "psychologist", Wilhelm
Wundt, opened the first psychological laboratory in 1879.
The late 19th century marks the start of psychology
as a scientific enterprise. The year 1879 is commonly seen as the
start of psychology as an independent field of study, because in
that year German scientist Wilhelm Wundt founded the first laboratory
dedicated exclusively to psychological research in Leipzig, Germany.
Other important early contributors to the field include Hermann
Ebbinghaus (a pioneer in studies on memory), the Russian Ivan Pavlov
(who discovered the learning process of classical conditioning),
and the Austrian Sigmund Freud. Freud's influence has been enormous,
though more as cultural icon than a force in psychology. Freud's
basic theories postulated the existence in humans of various unconscious
and instinctive "drives", and that the "self"
existed as a perpetual battle between the desires and demands of
the internal id, ego, and superego.The mid-20th century saw a rejection
of Freud's theories among many psychologists as being too unscientific,
as well as a reaction against Edward Titchener's abstract approach
to the mind. This le to the formulation of behaviorism by John B.
Watson, which was popularized by B.F. Skinner. Behaviorism proposed
epistemologically limiting psychological study to overt behavior,
since that could be quantified and easily measured. Scientific knowledge
of the "mind" was considered too metaphysical, hence impossible
to achieve. The final decades of the 20th century have seen the
rise of a new interdisciplinary approach to studying human psychology,
known collectively as cognitive science. Cognitive science again
considers the "mind" as a subject for investigation, using
the tools of evolutionary psychology, linguistics, computer science,
philosophy, and neurobiology. This new form of investigation has
proposed that a wide understanding of the human mind is possible,
may be applied to other research domains, such as artificial intelligence.
Various schools of thought have argued for a particular
model to be used as a guiding theory by which all, or
the majority, of human behaviour can be explained. The
popularity of these has waxed and waned over time. Some
psychologists may think of themselves as adherents to
a particular school of thought and reject the others,
although most consider each as an approach to unerstanding
the mind, and not necessarilyheories.Analytical
The majority of mainstream psychology is based on a framework derived
from cognitive psychology, although the popularity of this paradigm
does not exclude others, which are often applied as necessary. specialising
in certain areas, however, may use the dominant cognitive psychology
only rarely if at all.The testing of different aspec-known standardised
tests as well as those creted ad hoc as the situation or experiment
requires.Academic psychologists may focus purely on research and
psychological theory, aiming to further psychological understanding
in a particular area, while other psychologists may work in applied
psychology to deploy such knowledge for immediate and practical
benefit. However, these approaches are not mutually exclusive and
most psychologists will be involved in both . Clinical psychology,
among many of the various discipline of psychology, aims at developing
in practicing psychologists knowledge of and experience with research
and experimental methods which they will continue to build up as
well as employ as they treat individual with psychological issues
or use psychology to help others.
Contemporary psychology is broad-based and consists
of a diverse set of approaches, subject areas, and applications.
A comprehensive list is given in the Topics and Divisions sections
below. Where an area of interest is considered to need specific
training and specialist knowledge (especially in applied areas,
psychological associations will typically body to manage training
requirements. Similarly, requirements may be laid down for university
degrees in psychology, so that students acquire an adequate knowledge
in a number of areas. Additionally, areas of practical psychology,
where psychologists offer treatment to others, may require that
psychologists be licensed by overnment regulatory bodies as well.While
the exact divisions may vary between different countries or institutions,
the following areas are usually considered as core subjects or approaches
by psychology societies and universities.
Cognitive psychology
Cognitive psychology is a framework in which to understand the mind
more than a subject area, although it has traditionally focused
on certain aspects of psychology. Perception, learning, problem
solving, memory, attention, language and emotion are all well researched
areas. Cognitive psychology is based on a school of thought known
as cognitivism, whose adherents argue information processing model
of mental function, informed by positivism and experimental psychology.
Techniques and models from cognitive psychology are widly applied
and form the mainstay of psychological theories in many areas of
both researh and applied psychology.Clinical and is the application
of psychology to the understanding, treatment, and assessment of
psychopathology, behavioural or mental health issues. It has traditionally
been associated with counselling e ent of patients with brain injury.
This is known as clinical neuropsychology and typically involves
additional training in brain function.In recent years and particularly
in the United States, a major split has been developing between
academic research psychologists in universities and some branches
of clinical academic psychologists believe that these clinicians
use therapies based on discredited theories and unsupported by empirical
evidence of their effectiveness. From the other side, these clinicians
believe that the academics are ignoring their experience in dealing
with actual patients. The disagreement has resulted in the formation
of the American Psychological Society by the research psychologists
as a new body distinct from the American Psychological Associatio
Developmental and educational psychology
Largely focusing on the development of the human mind
through the life span, developmental psychology seeks
to understand how people come to perceive, understand,
and act within the world and how these perceptions change
as we age. This may focus on intellectual, cognitive,
neural, social, or moral development. Researchers who
studctivities that re both enjoyable for the child and
useful. In addition to studying children, developmental
psychologists also study other times of rapid change
. Educational psychology largely seeks to apply much
of this knowledge and understand how learning can best
take placnfluential in creating teaching methods and
educational practice orensic psychology
Forensic psychology is concerned with the application of psychological
methods and principles to legal questions and issues. Most typically,
this involves a clinical analysis of a particular individual and
an assessment of some specific psycho-legal question.In the civil
law arena, forensic psychologists often provide assessmeny someone
who hasbeen injured in an accident or who witnessed a traumtic event.
Psycholoists are often called upon in sexual harassment suits to
describe the impact of the harassment on the purported victim. In
this arena, the forensic psychologist might be required to provide
treatment recommendations or to analyze the specific treatment needs
of an individual, and might be asked to determine the potential
cost of such treatment.In the arena of workers' compensation law,
a forconditions of parole. Forensic psychologists are routinely
called upon in death penalty cases provide analysis of the intentions,
motivations and personality characteristics of the accused. In the
Juvenile Courts, they often are asked to help determine whether
or not a youthful offender can be rehabilitated. They assist prosecutors,
defenders, and law enforcement investigators in understanding a
range of noriminal behaviors, sometimes serving as "criminal
profilers."Forensic psychology refers to any application of
psychological principles, methods or understanding to legal questions
or issues.In addition to the applied practices, it also includes
academic or empircal research on topics involving law and human
behavior.
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